2. Vaisesika ´Distinctiveness´

Vaisesika, a philosophy outlined by Kanada, is similar to Nayayan philosophy in many respects and complements it. Whereas Nayaya is highly theoretical in its approach, Vaisesika (the ´s´s are pronounced  ´sh´) forms a more  practical counterpart.

There are two basic differences between Nayaya and Vaisesika. Firstly, where Nayaya claims there are four sources of valid knowledge (Pratyaksha, Anuman, Upman and Apta - direct observation, intelligent guesswork/inference, comparison and testimony) Vaisesika says only the first two are valid,  Pratyaksha (perception) and Anuman (inference).

Secondly, whereas Nayaya says that all reality can be understood through 16 Padarthas (categories), Vaisesika says it can be understood through the following seven:

1. Dravya 'substance'
2. Guna 'quality' (in the sense of 'characteristic' or 'feature')
3. Karma 'action'
4. Samanya 'generality' 'similarity'
5. Vishesha 'uniqueness' 'difference'
6. Samvaiya 'inherence'
7. Uthava 'non-existence'

1. Dravya ´substance´

Dravya is defined as 'that in which quality or action can exist in inherent form, but which in itself is different from both quality and action'. For example, if a piece of soft, red cloth is used to make a dress, the substance is cloth, the qualities are soft and red and the action is to sew or manufacture. The qualities and action arise from the substance and not vice versa.

The human body is also Dravya. Qualities – for example, ushna 'heat', guru 'heaviness' etc  - and  actions – thoughts and feelings, such as sukha (pleasure) dukha (pain)  - are linked to and arise from the body and cannot exist without it.

There are nine types of substance, or 'raw materials', according to Vaisesika, the varying proportions of which make up the whole universe. The first five - earth, water, fire, air and ether - are perceptible through the senses and subject to change. The other four - time, direction, soul and mind - are imperceptible (through they may be inferred) and both all-pervading and eternal. The first five correspond to Prataksha – direct observation and the rest Upaman – inference.

By definition what is eternal cannot be perceived by the physical senses and what is perceptible must be subject to change. All reality can be comprehended (manifested through substance) even when that substance is invisible to the human eye. The atoms which  make up the Nayayan and Vaisesikan universe are eternal: however the many forms they take are vulnerable to change and decay.

2. Guna 'qualities'

Vaisesika posits the following 24 gunas:


1 Rupa     colour
2 Rasa         taste
3 Ghanda    smell
4 Sparsha    touch
5 Shabda    sound
6 Samkhya    number
7 Parimana    magnitude
8 Prithakatva    distinctiveness
9 Samyog    conjunction
10 Buddhi    cognition/intellect
11 Sukha     pleasure
12 Dukha    pain
13 Iccha     desire
14 Dvisha    aversion
15 Prayatna    effort
16 Guru     heavy
17 Dravatva     fluidity
18 Sneha    viscosity
19 Samskara    tendency
20 Dharma    virtue
21 Adharma    non-virtue
22 Ushna    heat
23 Sheet     cold
24 Mridu    soft

Some qualities can exist both in the substance of the observer and object, as, for example when desire or aversion are provoked by objects we are attracted to or repelled by. In this case the qualities of objects may depend on the perceiver.

Both animate and non-animate objects have qualities and action which may be intrinsic or temporary. For example, mobile phones or computers have qualities of Buddhi - cognition- and Dharma or Adharma, depending on the purposes for which they are used. Even medicine could be Adharmic - non virtuous - if given inappropriately or with the wrong intentions. Morphine can be given as a pain reliever or be used to prematurely end someone's life. Dharma is an important quality of the universe and reality. Things can exist or be carried out in a meritorious way or not - according to common sense, happening in the right way at the right time.

Samskara (tendency) is another important Guna and can cover 'function' as well. For example the tendency of air is to move, the tendency of fire is to burn, whereas the tendency of a pen is to write and the tendency of food is to nourish.

Samyog (conjunction) covers things which go or which are found together. For example the dock leaf which cures nettle sting is generally always found very near to the nettle patch. The conjunction of ginger and honey is a complementary one. Conjunction can include bees and butterflies and flowers for example.

Pritakatva (distinctiveness) covers what is separate, alien or unique and is a quality much used in Ayurveda. For example, if a patient suffers from a heat-related complaint they will be given cooling treatments and food. In this case the doctor might prescribe whatever is distinct from  'Ushna' in order to bring the patient into balance. The law of similarity says that 'like increases like' and the law of uniqueness says that 'distinctiveness decreases'

3. Karma

Karma is the action and movement of body and mind, bringing the law of cause and effect into play, as each action has its consequence.

4. Samanya 'generality' 'similarity'

The highest level of similarity is the recently-discovered 'God particle'. At the deepest level we are are all one. At a more superficial level we believe ourselves to be separate from each other according to our gender, colour, religion, nationality and even use our diseases and problems to differentiate ourselves from others.

5. Vishesha 'uniqueness' 'difference'

This category is opposed to Samanya as in that it contains what is different or unique in nature. As mentioned above, this category is highly valued in Ayurveda, which notes that a given quality can decrease the opposing one. 

6. Samvaiya  'that which is inherent' 'inherent cause'

Samvaiya is connected to the idea of cause. Vaiseska says there are two kinds of relationship:  conjunction (connection or nearness) and that which is inherent (indivisible). Conjunction can be temporary, as what has been connected may be disconnected. The inherent implies an inseparable relationship, such as, for example, the threads which make up a cloth. An inherent property is something which is intrinsic to a substance and which cannot be pulled out, pushed out or destroyed.

7. Non-existence

This is a category in which to fit what is not covered by the other six categories. Vaisesika argues that the person after death is non-existent for example. Can we define what doesn't exist? How will you know that a chair doesn't exist by looking inside a room? Ayurveda does not accept the category of non existence.

Vaisesika concepts of God, soul and Karma are very similar to those of Nayaya and propound  dualism in that God and creation are seen as two separate forces.